United States of America – Page 5

The Battle of Bunker Hill

By June 1775, it had become clear that the colonial militias surrounding Boston could not defeat the British Army without becoming a more organised fighting force. The Continental Congress therefore created the Continental Army and appointed George Washington, a respected veteran of the French and Indian War, as its commander-in-chief. Washington travelled north from Philadelphia to take command, while the British forces in Boston prepared to break out of the city and seize the high ground overlooking the surrounding area.

An illustration of Washington being appointed Commander of the Continental Army

British General Thomas Gage planned to capture the Charlestown peninsula, particularly Bunker Hill, which would give his army an important strategic position overlooking Boston. However, colonial spies discovered the plan. On the night of June 16th, around 1,200 American troops under Colonel William Prescott secretly occupied the peninsula and constructed fortifications on Breed’s Hill, which was actually closer to Boston than Bunker Hill itself.

When the British launched their assault on June 17th, they were faced with a heavily fortified American position. British commanders initially believed that the inexperienced colonial troops would collapse when confronted by disciplined regulars. Their first two assaults were repulsed with devastating casualties. American defenders were famously instructed not to fire until they could “see the whites of their eyes”, conserving their limited ammunition until the British were within close range.

A painting of the continental army setting up their positions on Breed’s Hill

The British eventually launched a third assault after bringing up additional troops and artillery. By this point, however, the Americans had almost completely exhausted their ammunition. The British stormed the fortifications and forced the defenders to retreat across the Charlestown peninsula. The battle was therefore a British victory, but it came at an extraordinary cost. Around 1,000 British soldiers were killed or wounded, compared with roughly 450 American casualties. The British had captured the position, but the battle demonstrated that colonial forces could stand against some of the most experienced soldiers in the world and inflict enormous losses upon them.

The Battle of Bunker Hill also exposed a growing problem for both sides: neither knew exactly what the conflict was going to become. Many colonists still did not want independence from Britain. Their grievances had originally centred on taxation, representation and the increasing authority of Parliament, and some hoped that the dispute could still be settled while maintaining the colonies’ place within the British Empire.

A painting of Parliament from the period

The Continental Congress therefore sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III in July 1775. It declared the colonists’ loyalty to the Crown while asking the King to help resolve their grievances and restore peace. George III refused to recognise the petition, instead declaring that the colonies were in rebellion. To many Americans, this appeared to confirm that reconciliation with Britain was no longer possible.

The conflict subsequently became increasingly destructive. British forces and loyalist troops attacked colonial settlements, while American forces targeted British and loyalist property. In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth in Massachusetts, and in January 1776 they destroyed much of Norfolk, Virginia. American propagandists used the destruction of these towns to portray Britain as deliberately waging war against its own subjects.

A painting of the Royal Navy with Falmouth (now Portland) burning in the background

The rebellion was also beginning to attract international attention. Britain’s traditional enemies, particularly France and Spain, saw an opportunity to weaken the British Empire. Although neither initially entered the war openly, both provided the American rebels with weapons, ammunition, money and other supplies. France in particular would eventually become one of the most important American allies.

The failure of the Olive Branch Petition marked an important turning point. The conflict was no longer simply a dispute over taxation and political representation. Britain regarded the colonists as rebels, while an increasing number of Americans were beginning to question whether reconciliation was possible at all. Within months, the demand for reform would become a demand for independence.

The Battle of Lexington and Concord

The first shots of the American War of Independence were fired at Lexington on April 19th, 1775. British General Thomas Gage, the military governor of Massachusetts, had received intelligence that colonial militia were storing weapons and ammunition in the town of Concord. He therefore dispatched around 700 British regulars from Boston under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, with orders to march to Concord, seize the military supplies and arrest the colonial leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who were believed to be nearby.

The Americans had been warned that the British were coming. Paul Revere and William Dawes rode through the countryside during the night, alerting local militia companies and warning that British troops were advancing. By the time the British reached Lexington at dawn, around 70 colonial militiamen had gathered on the village green under Captain John Parker. They were vastly outnumbered and Parker ordered his men not to fire unless the British did so first. The two sides faced one another in the darkness and confusion before a shot rang out. Nobody knows for certain who fired it. The British then opened fire, killing eight Americans and wounding several more before continuing towards Concord.

The British reached Concord and began searching for the colonial weapons, but much of the military equipment had already been moved or hidden by the local militia. Meanwhile, hundreds of armed colonists were gathering in the surrounding countryside. At the North Bridge outside Concord, colonial militia confronted a detachment of British soldiers guarding the crossing. This time, the Americans advanced, and fighting broke out. The British were forced to withdraw back towards Concord, having failed to destroy most of the supplies they had been sent to seize.

An illustration of the British retreat to Concord

The British column now faced a much more dangerous journey. What had begun as a disciplined military expedition was turning into a retreat through hostile territory. Thousands of colonial militiamen had mobilised across the countryside, many of them experienced hunters and veterans of earlier conflicts despite having little formal military training. They used the landscape to their advantage, firing from behind walls, trees and buildings before withdrawing and attacking again further along the road. The British regulars, exhausted after hours of marching and fighting, were increasingly surrounded.

The situation became critical when British reinforcements under General Hugh Percy arrived from Boston. The fresh troops prevented the retreat from becoming a complete disaster and used artillery and disciplined formations to drive the militia away from the road. Even so, the British suffered heavy casualties as they fought their way back towards Boston. By the time they reached the city, more than 250 British soldiers had been killed, wounded or captured, compared with roughly 90 American casualties.

Militarily, the British had survived the expedition and returned to Boston, but strategically they had failed almost every objective they had been given. They had not captured Adams or Hancock, had failed to destroy the majority of the colonial weapons and had suffered significant casualties against a force they had expected to disperse easily. Worse still, thousands of colonial militia now surrounded Boston, trapping the British army inside the city.

What had begun as an attempt to enforce British authority in Massachusetts had therefore produced the opposite result. The fighting at Lexington and Concord transformed years of political tension into open warfare. Within weeks, thousands of Americans would gather around Boston, and the conflict that had begun with a single unexplained shot would develop into a full-scale war for American independence.

Background Behind The American War of Independence

The origins of the American War of Independence stretched back almost three centuries before the first shots were fired. Following Christopher Columbus’ voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, European powers established colonies throughout the Americas in search of wealth, trade and land. Spain initially built the largest empire, enriched by vast quantities of gold and silver from Central and South America, while Britain and France gradually established colonies along the eastern coast of North America. By the mid-eighteenth century, Britain’s Thirteen Colonies stretched from modern-day Georgia in the south to New Hampshire in the north, home to more than two million people. Although they remained loyal subjects of the British Crown, the colonies had developed their own elected assemblies and had grown accustomed to governing many of their own affairs.

A map of the lands gained during the Seven Years War

Tensions between Britain and France over North America continued to grow as both empires expanded westwards into the Ohio River Valley. The region was claimed by both countries and was strategically important for trade with Native American nations. In 1754, the governor of Virginia dispatched a young militia officer named George Washington to demand that French troops withdraw from the disputed territory. The mission ended in violence when Washington’s force attacked a small French detachment at the Battle of Jumonville Glen. The skirmish escalated into the French and Indian War, the North American theatre of the wider Seven Years’ War, which soon spread across Europe, Africa, India and the Atlantic, becoming one of history’s first truly global conflicts.

Britain emerged victorious in 1763. Under the Treaty of Paris it gained Canada and much of France’s North American territory, effectively ending France’s colonial empire on the continent. Victory, however, came at an enormous financial cost. Britain’s national debt had almost doubled during the war, and ministers in London argued that the American colonies should help pay for the expense of defending them against future attacks.

An image of Parliament from the 18th Century

For decades, Parliament had largely allowed the colonies to manage their own internal affairs, a policy historians often describe as “salutary neglect.” After 1763, that approach changed dramatically. Parliament introduced a series of new taxes and trade regulations, including the Sugar Act, the Stamp Act and later the Townshend Acts, which placed duties on goods such as paper, glass, paint, lead and tea. From London’s perspective, these taxes were relatively modest and simply asked the colonies to contribute towards the costs of the empire. Many colonists, however, viewed the issue very differently.

The controversy was not simply about money. Unlike people living in Britain, the American colonies had no elected representatives sitting in Parliament at Westminster. Colonists argued that only their own elected assemblies had the constitutional right to tax them. The slogan “No taxation without representation” quickly became the rallying cry of colonial resistance. British politicians rejected the argument, insisting that Members of Parliament represented the interests of the entire empire through a principle known as virtual representation, whether people had elected them or not. The disagreement was rapidly becoming a constitutional crisis rather than simply a dispute over taxation.

A political cartoon depicting the announcement of the controversial “Tax on Tea”

Colonial resistance spread quickly. Merchants organised widespread boycotts of British goods, seriously damaging British trade. Faced with mounting pressure from both American protesters and British businesses, Parliament repealed many of the new taxes. One important exception remained: the tax on tea. Parliament deliberately kept this duty in place to reinforce its claim that it possessed the legal authority to tax the colonies whenever it chose.

Relations continued to deteriorate in Boston, where the presence of British troops inflamed tensions. Soldiers had first been stationed in the town in 1768 to help enforce customs laws and maintain order, but many colonists regarded them as an occupying army. On March 5th 1770, a confrontation erupted outside the Customs House after a crowd surrounded a small group of soldiers, shouting insults and throwing snowballs, ice and other objects. Reinforcements arrived, confusion spread through the ranks and, after one soldier fired his musket, the others followed. Five colonists were killed.

The incident quickly became known as the Boston Massacre. Although the soldiers were later defended in court by future President John Adams and most were acquitted, colonial leaders such as Samuel Adams used the event as powerful propaganda. Engravings by Paul Revere portrayed the shootings as a deliberate massacre of innocent civilians, fuelling anti-British sentiment throughout the colonies.

For a short time, tensions eased. That changed in 1773 when Parliament passed the Tea Act. Contrary to popular belief, the Act actually lowered the price of tea by allowing the financially struggling East India Company to sell directly to the colonies. However, many colonists believed accepting the cheaper tea would also mean accepting Parliament’s right to tax them. On the night of December 16th 1773, members of the Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Mohawk warriors and boarded three East India Company ships anchored in Boston Harbour. Working carefully through the night, they threw 342 chests of tea into the harbour, destroying goods worth thousands of pounds. The protest became known as the Boston Tea Party and marked one of the most famous acts of civil disobedience in history.

The British government responded forcefully. Parliament passed a series of punitive measures known in Britain as the Coercive Acts and in America as the Intolerable Acts. Boston Harbour was closed until the destroyed tea had been paid for, Massachusetts lost much of its self-government, and additional British troops were sent to restore order. Rather than isolating Massachusetts, these measures convinced many colonists that their own liberties were equally under threat.

In September 1774, representatives from twelve of the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia at the First Continental Congress. The delegates still hoped for reconciliation with King George III and Parliament, petitioning the Crown while also organising another boycott of British goods. At the same time, however, colonial militias – known as Minutemen – began stockpiling weapons and training for the possibility of armed conflict.

The prayer at the First Continental Congress

British authorities soon learned that military supplies were being gathered at Concord, Massachusetts. During the night of 18 April 1775, around 700 British regulars marched from Boston with orders to seize the weapons and arrest several colonial leaders if possible. Their movements were quickly discovered, prompting riders including Paul Revere, William Dawes and Samuel Prescott to warn the surrounding countryside that British troops were on the move. Contrary to the famous phrase, Revere did not shout “The British are coming!” – most colonists still considered themselves British – but instead warned that “the Regulars are coming.”

At dawn on 19 April, British troops encountered a small company of colonial militia on Lexington Green. Neither side intended to begin a war that morning, yet amid confusion and mounting tension, a single shot rang out. To this day, nobody knows who fired first. That mysterious gunshot – the “shot heard round the world” – marked the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, a conflict that would ultimately transform thirteen British colonies into the United States of America.