Georgian – Great History

The Siege of Toulon

The year was 1793. Louis XVI, the 45th King of France, was dead, beheaded by his own people. Outside of Paris, Royalist sentiment was abundant and, in an attempt to unite France behind one cause, the Revolutionary government declared war on Austria-Hungary, who believed that France’s anti-monarchist sentiment would spread across the continent. Austria called upon its allies and France was no in all out war with most major powers, including the United Kingdom, Sardinia, Spain and Prussia.

Naturally, this did not help the French cause and violent uprisings began sparking up across France. One such place these uprisings was the port city of Toulon, a highly strategic naval base in the Mediterranean. This uprising was, unsurprisingly, backed by the British, who were welcomed into the port with open arms. France had now lost the naval power of the Mediterranean without a shot being fired. France needed this port back desperately and sent 19,000 troops down to deal with the uprising. One of these forces was commanded by a then relatively unknown artillery officer, by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleon was from the island of Corsica, which was purchased by France from Genoa not long before Napoleon was born. The island had widespread anti-French sentiment, which Napoleon agreed with. His father, on the other hand, gladly embraced the new French rulers, leading to father and son often butting heads. He was sent to military school in France, where he was heavily bullied due to his accent and his families lack of wealth. However, he held his ground and often stood up to bullies. When he wasn’t beating up the bullies, he would often be found alone reading about the conqueror’s of old, like Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great. He wondered if it was possible if he could be as great and powerful as them.

Once he graduated, he was made Second Lieutenant in an artillery regiment. But Napoleon was not content with this. He had ambition and wanted more power. However, in pre-revolutionary France, military ranks were most often gained by nobility and nepotism, not by actual talent. Luckily for Napoleon, the Revolution occurred and the people of France were now on a more equal playing field. Whilst Napoleon was not too big on the violence and mass beheadings, he believed that, in order to rise the ranks, he must become pro-revolutionary.

General Jean-François Carteaux, the leader of the forces at Toulon, was a court painter by trade with zero military training so was not highly skilled in leadership positions. Not only that but one of his only professional officers was seriously wounded in battle. Antoine Saliceti, a Corsican deputy of the National Convention, recommended Napoleon, who was travelling near Toulon on his way to the front lines. Despite Napoleon having almost no military experience yet, Saliceti appreciated his manner and political aspirations. Carteaux had almost no choice but to accept Napoleon to lead the Siege of Toulon.

A map of Toulon, with the Fort’s labelled

Napoleon’s plan was simple. They needed to build up significantly more guns and train the infantry to operate them. Then, they would capture the southern Fort L’Eguilette, allowing them to inflict heavy artillery casualties on the British ships, forcing them to leave, which was important as the ships were the key source of defence. The first part of this plan, however, involved the capture of Mount Caire, where British troops were stationed. After an unsuccessful assault, due to Carteaux being hesitant to send the 3,000 men required to accomplish the task, command of Toulon was handed over to General Dugommier. He stated that:

There is only one possible plan – Bonaparte’s
General Dugommier speaking on Toulon

In order to build up the fortifications of Toulon, the British built a new fort called Fort Mulgrave. The area was so fortified it was called “Little Gibraltar” by the French. An unsuccessful British counter attack followed and, in the early hours of the 18th of December, 1793, in the pouring rain and howling wind, Napoleon’s forces charged up the hill. The muskets were useless as guns due to the rain and could only be used as clubs and bayonets. The second charge came, with Napoleon in this wave. During this, his horse was killed and he was wounded in his thigh, mere inches away from a fatal stab. However, despite this, the British were driven off the Mountain after severe hand to hand combat, and French artillery now observed Toulon.

The British, not wanting to lose their ships, began evacuating the city. Citizens, who feared being executed as traitors to the Republic, attempted to board the ships. Some 14,000 were evacuated whilst the rest of the city either drowned in the chaos or were executed by firing squad in the morning. This was the first victory of Napoleon Bonaparte, a path that would lead Europe down a 21 year long path of near endless war. At the time, Napoleon was only 24 and was promoted to Brigadier General.

The Aftermath of the American War of Independence

The Revolution had been fought partly over the principle that governments derived their authority from the people, but the new United States was far from politically settled. The Continental Congress had been deliberately designed to prevent the creation of another powerful central authority, but the resulting government was extremely weak. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had difficulty raising taxes, regulating trade or maintaining a strong national military.

An illustration of the Continental Congress

The problems became increasingly obvious after the war. The United States was heavily indebted, states disagreed over trade and taxation, and fears grew that the new republic could collapse into political and economic disorder. In 1787, delegates gathered in Philadelphia to rewrite the country’s system of government. Rather than simply strengthening the Articles of Confederation, they created an entirely new Constitution. It established a federal government divided between three branches: the executive, legislative and judicial.

The presidency was deliberately designed to be powerful enough to govern but constrained by elections, Congress and the courts. There was also an obvious candidate for the first president. George Washington. Washington had become the most respected military figure in the new republic, but he had no desire to become a dictator. In December 1783, he famously resigned his military commission and returned to private life.

With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your former ones have been glorious and honourable.
Washington to his officers upon his retirement in 1783

A painting of Washington’s farewell to his officer’s at a tavern

In an age when victorious generals frequently seized political power, Washington’s decision was extraordinary. He had commanded an army for eight years and had the loyalty of thousands of soldiers. Had he chosen to use that popularity to establish himself as a permanent ruler, the new American government might have developed into something entirely different. Instead, Washington voluntarily surrendered his authority.

When the Constitution came into effect in 1789, Washington was unanimously elected as the first President of the United States. He established many of the conventions that would define the office, including appointing a cabinet of advisers and delivering an annual message to Congress. Washington did not attempt to turn the presidency into a monarchy. Nor did he attempt to remain in power indefinitely. After serving two four-year terms, he retired in 1797. His decision established an important precedent: the presidency was an office that a person could willingly leave.

A painting of the inauguration of George Washington

The American victory also had profound consequences outside America. France had played a decisive role in defeating Britain, but supporting the Americans had come at an enormous financial cost. The French government had accumulated huge debts while already struggling with an inefficient taxation system and an increasingly dissatisfied population. The irony was that France had helped create an independent republic partly to weaken its British rival, but the expense of doing so contributed to the financial crisis that eventually helped destabilise the French monarchy.

Within a few years, France itself would experience a revolution. The American Revolution therefore became an important source of inspiration for French revolutionaries. Ideas about popular sovereignty, constitutional government and the rights of citizens crossed the Atlantic. The American example demonstrated that an established monarchy could be challenged and that a new republic could be created in its place. The two revolutions were nevertheless very different. The American Revolution was primarily a war for independence from a foreign government, whereas the French Revolution became a much broader struggle over the structure of French society and government.

A painting of revolutionaries during the French Revolution

The American Revolution permanently changed the political landscape of the Western world. The United States became the first large-scale modern republic created from a successful colonial independence movement, demonstrating that a European imperial power could be defeated by its own subjects. Its declaration that governments derive their legitimacy from the consent of the governed became enormously influential, even though the revolutionary United States did not initially extend those principles to everyone. Slavery remained legal, women were excluded from political participation and Native American peoples faced increasing displacement as the new nation expanded westward. The Revolution was therefore both a radical transformation and an incomplete one.

Nevertheless, its ideas travelled far beyond North America. The language of liberty, constitutional government and popular sovereignty influenced political movements across Europe and the Atlantic world. The French Revolution would soon demonstrate how powerful those ideas could become. The war had begun with a dispute over taxation and political representation. It ended with the creation of a new country and a challenge to one of the fundamental assumptions of eighteenth-century politics: that monarchy and empire were the natural forms of government. The United States had won its independence. Now it had to prove that its experiment in republican government could survive.

The Battle of Yorktown

By 1781, both sides were becoming exhausted by the war. The Continental Army had suffered from shortages of food, clothing and pay, while mutinies had broken out among American troops. Britain, meanwhile, was struggling with the enormous financial cost of fighting a war thousands of miles from home. The French alliance had transformed the conflict, forcing Britain to fight not only the Americans but also France and, increasingly, Spain. Neither side could easily deliver a decisive blow.

An illustration of a mutiny on the Pennsylvania Line in 1781

The British had therefore shifted their attention towards the Southern Colonies, hoping that the large population of Loyalists there would allow them to rebuild their strength. General Charles Cornwallis had campaigned through the Carolinas and eventually moved his army into Virginia. He established himself at Yorktown on the Chesapeake Bay, intending to use the position as a secure base from which British forces could control Virginia and receive supplies and reinforcements by sea.

Unknown to Cornwallis, however, Washington had devised a plan that could trap him. The British commander in New York, General Henry Clinton, had intercepted American communications suggesting that Washington was preparing to attack New York City. Clinton therefore remained in New York, believing the city to be the main target. In reality, Washington was preparing to march his army south towards Virginia. The deception allowed Washington and the French commander, the Comte de Rochambeau, to move thousands of troops away from New York without the British immediately realising what was happening.

The map of the paths of the armies, colliding at Yorktown

At the same time, a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse sailed into the Chesapeake Bay. On September 5th, 1781, the French navy defeated the British fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake. The victory was crucial. Cornwallis could no longer rely on the Royal Navy to evacuate or reinforce his army. Washington and Rochambeau arrived outside Yorktown and began constructing a series of siege lines around the British position. American and French artillery relentlessly bombarded the town while their soldiers gradually tightened the encirclement. Cornwallis repeatedly requested assistance from Clinton, but British reinforcements never arrived in sufficient numbers.

By October, Cornwallis’s position had become hopeless. His troops were surrounded on land, cut off from the sea and suffering from constant bombardment. On October 19th, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered approximately 8,000 soldiers to the American and French forces. The American Revolution was not technically over. British forces still occupied New York, Charleston and Savannah, and fighting continued elsewhere. However, Yorktown destroyed Britain’s political ability to continue the war. Parliament had lost the will to spend enormous sums of money fighting a conflict that increasingly appeared unwinnable.

A painting of Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown

Peace negotiations eventually produced the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783. Britain formally recognised the independence of the United States of America and agreed to withdraw its forces from the thirteen former colonies. The new United States received territory extending westward to the Mississippi River and northward to the Great Lakes. The Americans, in return, agreed to recognise debts owed to British creditors and promised that Loyalists would not be persecuted or have their property unlawfully confiscated. Britain also retained control of Canada, while Spain recovered Florida from Britain. The treaty formally ended the American Revolutionary War.

For Britain, the result was humiliating. The world’s most powerful empire had been unable to defeat a rebellion in thirteen of its own colonies. Yet Britain itself did not collapse. It remained a major global power and soon began expanding its influence elsewhere. For the United States, however, victory created an entirely new problem. The Americans had won independence. They now had to decide what to do with it.

The Southern Campaign of the American Revolution

By 1780, the American Revolutionary War had entered a frustrating stalemate. British forces still held several important positions, particularly in New York, but their attempts to destroy Washington’s main army had repeatedly failed. The British government therefore began looking for a new strategy. Rather than continuing to fight for territory in the northern colonies, British commanders increasingly turned their attention towards the South. The decision was based on a simple assumption: the Southern colonies contained far more Loyalist support than New England. British commanders believed that large numbers of Americans in Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina remained loyal to the Crown and would rise up once British forces arrived. If Britain could capture the Southern colonies and raise Loyalist militias, it could gradually isolate the rebellious northern states and restore royal authority.

A painting depicting Britannia, the national personification of Britain, taking in exiled loyalists

The strategy initially appeared to work. In December 1778, British forces captured Savannah, the capital of Georgia. A combined American and French attempt to retake the city in 1779 ended in failure, with the Allies suffering heavy casualties during the unsuccessful Siege of Savannah. The British subsequently strengthened their position in Georgia and expanded their control into the surrounding countryside. The next major target was Charleston, South Carolina. Charleston was one of the most important American ports in the South and the centre of the Southern war effort. In 1780, a large British army under General Henry Clinton surrounded the city. After a prolonged siege, American forces inside Charleston surrendered on May 12th, resulting in the capture of more than 5,000 Continental soldiers. It was one of the largest American defeats of the entire war.

With Charleston captured, the British appeared to have achieved exactly what they had wanted. Much of Georgia and South Carolina fell under British control, while thousands of American soldiers had been taken prisoner. Yet the British soon discovered a serious problem with their strategy. Winning territory was not the same as controlling it. The Southern colonies descended into a brutal civil war between Patriots and Loyalists. Local militias fought one another, ambushed British patrols and attacked supply lines. British commanders could capture towns, but maintaining control over the countryside proved considerably more difficult. Instead of producing a united Loyalist population, British occupation frequently encouraged further resistance.

A paining of American and British forces fighting in the South

The British attempted to exploit the collapse of the Continental Army in the region by recruiting Loyalist militias. One of the most infamous Loyalist victories came at the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780, where Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton’s troops defeated a force of American cavalry and infantry. Reports that American soldiers had been killed after attempting to surrender helped create the notorious reputation of “Tarleton’s Quarter.” The violence of the Southern campaign increasingly turned the conflict into a war between neighbours. Communities were divided between those supporting independence and those remaining loyal to Britain, while neither side could be certain who controlled the countryside.

Meanwhile, the American military leadership attempted to rebuild its forces. Congress initially turned to Horatio Gates, the celebrated victor of Saratoga, believing that his previous success made him the obvious choice to command the Southern army. Gates marched into South Carolina with the intention of confronting the British before they could consolidate their gains. His decision proved disastrous. On August 16th, 1780, Gates confronted a British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden. The American army collapsed almost immediately. Many of the militia troops fled without seriously engaging the British, while the Continental soldiers who remained were overwhelmed. Gates himself was forced to retreat from the battlefield, eventually travelling hundreds of miles away from his shattered army.

The defeat effectively destroyed Gates’ reputation as a military commander. The man celebrated for Saratoga had now presided over one of the most humiliating American defeats of the war. George Washington therefore selected a new commander: Nathaniel Greene. Greene understood that the Americans could not defeat Cornwallis by simply confronting the larger British army in a conventional battle. Instead, he adopted a strategy of attrition and manoeuvre. His objective was not necessarily to destroy the British in a single decisive engagement, but to force them to constantly march, fight and consume supplies while American forces remained capable of returning to the battlefield.

Greene famously divided his army, sending part of it under Daniel Morgan into western South Carolina. Cornwallis responded by sending Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton to destroy Morgan’s force. Instead, Morgan turned the tables. On January 17th, 1781, Morgan defeated Tarleton at the Battle of Cowpens. The American victory inflicted severe casualties on the British and forced Cornwallis to pursue Greene’s army into North Carolina. What followed became known as the Race to the Dan.

Greene deliberately retreated northwards, forcing Cornwallis to chase him across increasingly difficult terrain. The British army was constantly forced to march in pursuit of an enemy that repeatedly escaped them. By the time Cornwallis reached the Dan River, Greene had successfully crossed into Virginia and escaped. The retreat had achieved its purpose. Greene had preserved his army while forcing Cornwallis to exhaust his men and supplies. Greene then returned to North Carolina with reinforcements and prepared to confront Cornwallis once again.

On March 15th, 1781, the two armies met at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. The Americans were eventually forced from the battlefield, giving Cornwallis a tactical victory. But it was a devastating one. British casualties were so severe that Cornwallis could no longer afford to pursue Greene’s army into the countryside. The Americans had lost the battle, but strategically, Greene had achieved much of what he wanted. Cornwallis had been forced to fight his way through North Carolina while suffering heavy casualties and struggling to maintain his supply lines. Greene’s army, meanwhile, remained intact.

A painting of the Battle of Guilford Courthouse

The Southern Campaign therefore demonstrated one of the central problems facing the British war effort. Britain could still win individual battles and capture major cities, but it was becoming increasingly difficult to translate those victories into lasting control. The Americans did not need to destroy the British army outright. They simply needed to survive longer than Britain was willing to continue fighting.

Greene continued campaigning throughout the Carolinas, gradually forcing British forces to abandon much of the territory they had captured. Cornwallis eventually decided to move his army north into Virginia, where he hoped to establish a new British base and coordinate with reinforcements. Instead, he would find himself marching towards the decisive confrontation of the entire war.

An illustration of Cornwallis with some of his men

The British Southern strategy had begun with the capture of Savannah and Charleston and the belief that Loyalist support would restore the colonies to the Crown. By 1781, however, the countryside was consumed by partisan warfare, British supply lines were overstretched and American armies remained in the field. The war in the South had not been won by the Americans through one spectacular victory. Instead, Greene and his commanders had gradually worn down the British position, demonstrating that an army capable of winning battles could still lose a war.

The Betrayal of Benedict Arnold

By 1779, Benedict Arnold had become one of the most controversial figures in the American Revolution. He had once been celebrated as one of the Continental Army’s most courageous commanders, but a combination of personal resentment, financial difficulties and political disputes had gradually turned him against the revolutionary cause. His eventual betrayal would make his name synonymous with treason in American history. Arnold’s frustration had been building for several years. Despite playing an important role in the American victories at Saratoga, he believed that Congress had repeatedly denied him the recognition he deserved. Other officers had been promoted above him, while Arnold was also accused of using his position to make money from military contracts and supplies. He was eventually court-martialled over allegations of corruption and misuse of military authority.

The court-martial largely cleared him of the most serious accusations, but Washington reprimanded him for using his position for personal benefit. Arnold felt humiliated. He had sacrificed a great deal for the Revolution, including suffering a serious leg wound at Saratoga, yet increasingly believed that Congress and his fellow revolutionaries were treating him with contempt.

His personal life also began to change. In 1778, American forces retook Philadelphia after the British evacuated the city. Arnold was appointed military commander of Philadelphia, where he began associating with the city’s wealthy social elite. He moved into the former home of the Penn family, which had been used by British commander William Howe during the occupation, and began living an expensive lifestyle that was far beyond what his military income could comfortably support. Arnold also became romantically involved with Peggy Shippen, a young woman from a wealthy Philadelphia family. The Shippen family had maintained connections with British officers during the occupation, and Peggy herself had previously been associated with British Major John André. Arnold and Peggy married in April 1779.

An illustration of Peggy Shippen and her child

Arnold’s increasingly extravagant lifestyle attracted suspicion. Pennsylvania authorities accused him of corruption and misuse of his military position, and he was eventually subjected to a court-martial. Although he was convicted on several relatively minor charges, Washington gave him only a mild reprimand. The decision reflected Washington’s continued belief that Arnold was fundamentally a brave and valuable soldier. Washington famously described him as a “fighting general” and had previously trusted him with some of the Continental Army’s most important operations.

But Arnold had reached a breaking point. Rather than simply resigning from the Continental Army, he began secretly communicating with the British. Peggy Shippen played an important role in facilitating communications between Arnold and British intelligence. Arnold eventually established contact with Major John André, who had become the British chief of intelligence in New York. Arnold offered the British something potentially devastating: West Point.

West Point was one of the most strategically important American positions on the Hudson River. Its location allowed the Continental Army to control a crucial section of the river and prevent Britain from separating New England from the rest of the United States. If the British could capture it, they could potentially divide the American forces and seriously damage the revolutionary war effort. Arnold therefore requested command of West Point. Washington agreed.

In August 1780, Arnold took command of the fortress and its surrounding defences. He then secretly provided André with information about the fort’s weaknesses, troop numbers, artillery positions and supplies. In exchange, Arnold expected a large payment and a senior position in the British Army. The plan began to unravel in September. André travelled into American territory under the alias “John Anderson” to meet Arnold and collect the military documents. He was attempting to return to British lines when three American militiamen stopped him near Tarrytown, New York. They searched him and discovered the documents hidden inside his clothing. André was immediately arrested.

Arnold quickly realised that his conspiracy had been exposed. He escaped down the Hudson River aboard the British ship Vulture and reached British-held New York. Washington arrived at West Point shortly afterwards and discovered the extent of Arnold’s betrayal. André was tried as a spy and sentenced to death. Washington privately admired André’s conduct and attempted to arrange a prisoner exchange, but the British refused. André was hanged on October 2nd, 1780. Arnold, meanwhile, received what he had wanted. The British commissioned him as a brigadier general and paid him for the information he had provided. He subsequently commanded British forces against the Americans, including campaigns in Virginia and Connecticut. He led raids against American towns and military positions, fighting against the same revolutionaries alongside whom he had once served. His military career on the British side, however, never reached the heights he had expected. He was distrusted by many British officers, while his former comrades regarded him as one of the Revolution’s greatest traitors.

Benedict Arnold’s story is unusual because his reputation did not begin with betrayal. Before defecting, he had been one of the Continental Army’s most aggressive and capable commanders. He played important roles in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga, the invasion of Canada and, most famously, the Battles of Saratoga. His leadership at Saratoga helped produce one of the most important American victories of the war and contributed directly to France entering the conflict. His betrayal therefore cannot simply be explained by a lifelong commitment to the British cause. Arnold was a revolutionary who became deeply resentful of the political establishment he believed had mistreated him. His grievances were real, but his response to them ultimately transformed him from an American hero into a symbol of treason.

An illustration of Arnold commanding the burning of New London, Connecticut, as a British Commander

The irony is that Arnold’s name became more famous because of his betrayal than because of his victories. His earlier achievements have often been overshadowed by the simple phrase that has followed him for centuries: “Benedict Arnold” became synonymous with traitor. Yet there is another irony. Arnold himself did not necessarily view his actions as betraying a country that he believed already existed. The United States was still fighting for independence, and Arnold had become convinced that the revolutionary leadership had betrayed the principles for which he had originally fought. His decision was therefore partly personal, partly political and partly financial.

Whatever his motivations, the consequences were undeniable. The man who had once helped save the American Revolution eventually attempted to undermine it from within. And while the Revolution ultimately succeeded without him, Benedict Arnold would spend the rest of his life knowing that the greatest achievement of his military career was the same war he ultimately tried to betray.

The French Entry Into the American Revolution

The American victory at Trenton and Princeton had prevented the Continental Army from collapsing, but Britain still possessed enormous military advantages. The British army controlled New York, had captured Newport in Rhode Island and was preparing to crush the rebellion in the southern colonies. Washington’s army therefore spent much of the winter of 1777 in Morristown, New Jersey, attempting to recover from the previous year’s disastrous campaign.

An illustration of the encampment at Morristown

The British attempted to regain the initiative in New Jersey, but Washington’s army proved much harder to destroy than expected. British forces were repeatedly harassed by American troops and militia, while Washington avoided committing his entire army to a battle that could result in its destruction. By the spring, the British had largely withdrawn from southern New Jersey and concentrated their forces elsewhere.

Britain’s attention now turned towards a potentially decisive strategy: separating New England from the rest of the American colonies. The Hudson River provided a natural route for doing so. If British forces could advance south from Canada while another army moved north from New York, they could meet somewhere along the Hudson Valley and effectively cut the rebellion in half. The northern part of this operation was entrusted to General John Burgoyne. His army advanced south from Canada in the summer of 1777, capturing Fort Ticonderoga before continuing towards the Hudson Valley. Meanwhile, General William Howe was supposed to move north from New York and meet Burgoyne.

Instead, Howe made a crucial decision that would change the course of the war. Rather than marching north, he decided to attack Philadelphia, the political capital of the revolution. After defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine, British forces occupied Philadelphia in September 1777, forcing the Continental Congress to flee to York, Pennsylvania. Militarily, Howe had achieved an impressive victory. Politically, however, Philadelphia was less important than the British expected. Congress simply relocated, while Washington’s army remained in the field. More importantly, Howe’s decision meant that Burgoyne was now advancing through hostile territory without the support he had been promised.

Burgoyne’s army increasingly struggled with American resistance and a lack of supplies. American militia flooded into the region, while General Horatio Gates assembled a growing Continental force to block the British advance. The resulting confrontation centred on Saratoga, New York. Benedict Arnold once again played a crucial role. Arnold had become increasingly frustrated with Congress and his fellow officers, believing that his contributions were being overlooked while other generals received promotions and credit. At Saratoga, he clashed with Gates over how the American army should respond to the British advance.

Gates preferred to maintain a defensive position and allow the British to attack the American fortifications. Arnold believed the Americans should take the initiative and strike Burgoyne before he could reorganise. Although Gates opposed an aggressive attack, Arnold eventually led troops into battle during the fighting at Bemis Heights. The American assault inflicted heavy casualties on Burgoyne’s army, and Arnold himself was seriously wounded after leading a charge against the British position. The Americans won the Battle of Saratoga on October 17th, 1777. Burgoyne was surrounded, cut off from reinforcements and supplies, and ultimately forced to surrender his entire army. The victory was a turning point. For the British, Saratoga demonstrated that the rebellion could not simply be crushed by military force. For the Americans, it provided desperately needed evidence that independence was achievable. But its greatest consequences were diplomatic.

Benjamin Franklin had been sent to France to persuade King Louis XVI’s government to support the American cause. France had several reasons to oppose Britain. The two countries had been bitter rivals for generations, and France had lost much of its North American empire to Britain during the Seven Years’ War. Supporting the Americans offered France an opportunity to weaken its greatest rival and potentially recover some of the influence it had lost. Franklin proved to be an exceptionally effective diplomat. He cultivated influential figures at the French court and presented the American Revolution as a legitimate struggle against British tyranny. His personal popularity in Paris also helped him build support for the American cause. He became something of a celebrity in French society, although his diplomatic activities were considerably more important to the revolution than his famously active social and romantic life.

A painting of Franklin in the Parisian Court

The French government had already been secretly supplying the Americans with weapons, ammunition and other military supplies. However, openly entering the war against Britain was a much more dangerous decision. Saratoga changed the calculation. The American victory demonstrated that the Continental Army could defeat a major British force. France now had reason to believe that the United States might actually survive. In February 1778, France formally recognised American independence and signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance with the United States. The consequences were enormous.

Britain was no longer fighting a rebellion confined to its thirteen colonies. It was now fighting France as well, and eventually Spain and the Dutch Republic would also become involved in the wider conflict. The British were forced to divert troops, ships and resources away from North America to defend their possessions and interests around the world. Burgoyne’s surrender therefore achieved something that Washington had been unable to accomplish through battlefield victories alone: it transformed the American Revolution into an international war. The British abandoned Philadelphia in the summer of 1778 as the new French threat forced them to concentrate their forces around New York. Washington followed them across New Jersey, eventually fighting the British at the Battle of Monmouth. The battle was largely inconclusive, but the Continental Army demonstrated how much it had improved since the disasters of 1776.

Much of that improvement had taken place during the winter at Valley Forge. Washington’s army endured freezing temperatures, hunger and disease, but it also received an extraordinary contribution from a Prussian military officer, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. Arriving at Valley Forge in 1778, Steuben introduced a systematic programme of training, teaching soldiers how to march, manoeuvre, maintain formations and handle their weapons effectively. He imposed strict discipline and helped turn the Continental Army from a collection of inexperienced militia and volunteers into a more professional fighting force.

By the time spring arrived, Washington’s army was considerably better trained and disciplined than the force that had been driven out of New York two years earlier. The war had entered a new phase. Washington had survived the disasters of 1776, Saratoga had brought France into the conflict, and the Continental Army was becoming a genuine professional fighting force. Britain still controlled major cities and possessed enormous resources, but the rebellion was no longer an isolated colonial uprising. It had become a global war – and Britain’s chances of crushing American independence were rapidly disappearing.

The Crossing of the Delaware

By December 1776, the American Revolution appeared to be on the verge of collapse. Washington’s Continental Army had suffered a series of devastating defeats around New York and had been driven across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Thousands of soldiers had been killed, wounded or captured, while many more had simply deserted. The enlistments of many remaining soldiers were also due to expire at the end of the year. If Washington could not achieve a victory soon, his army might effectively disappear.

Washington on the opposite bank of the Delaware from the British Army

The British, meanwhile, believed that the American rebellion was nearing its end. British and Hessian (German speaking auxiliary) forces had occupied much of New Jersey, establishing a series of scattered garrisons throughout the region. One of the most important was at Trenton, where around 1,400 Hessian soldiers were stationed under Colonel Johann Rall. The Hessians were German troops hired by Britain to fight alongside its army. Although they were experienced soldiers, they were spread across a number of defensive positions and had become increasingly confident that the Americans were incapable of mounting another major attack. Washington desperately needed to prove them wrong.

With Christmas approaching, Washington devised an extremely risky plan. He would cross the Delaware River during the night, attack the Hessian garrison at Trenton and then withdraw before the British could bring their larger forces against him. The operation depended upon secrecy and timing. If the army were detected while crossing the river, Washington’s already weakened force could potentially be destroyed. On the evening of December 25th, 1776, Washington’s soldiers began gathering along the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware. The conditions were terrible. The river was filled with floating ice, while strong winds and freezing temperatures made the crossing extremely dangerous. The original plan involved several separate crossings, but worsening conditions prevented some of them from taking place. Nevertheless, Washington continued with the operation.

A painting of Washington crossing the Delaware with his men

The importance of getting his entire force across the river was so great that Washington reportedly ordered everyone to carry weapons, including musicians and other non-combat personnel. The soldiers struggled to move artillery and supplies across the icy water while maintaining silence and discipline. The crossing took far longer than expected. Washington’s army did not finish crossing until the early hours of December 26th. Despite the difficulties, the operation had succeeded: the Hessians at Trenton had not been warned that an American attack was coming. Washington now marched his exhausted soldiers towards the town.

At approximately 8 a.m. on December 26th, the Continental Army attacked Trenton from several directions. The Hessians were caught by surprise and attempted to organise a defence, but the Americans quickly seized key positions and brought artillery into the town. Colonel Rall attempted to rally his men and launch a counterattack, but he was mortally wounded during the fighting. Within roughly an hour, the Hessian resistance collapsed. Around 900 Hessian soldiers were captured, while only a small number of Americans were killed or wounded. Washington had achieved something that had seemed almost impossible only days earlier: a major American victory.

The victory at Trenton was militarily modest compared with the enormous battles that had already taken place around New York. Its psychological importance, however, was enormous. The Continental Army had demonstrated that it could still defeat experienced British troops and their allies. More importantly, soldiers who had been considering desertion were given a reason to remain in the army. Washington did not stop there. After crossing back into Pennsylvania, he returned to New Jersey and established a position around Trenton. When British commander Lord Cornwallis moved against him with a much larger force, Washington managed to evade the British during the night and march around their army. He then attacked the British garrison at Princeton on January 3rd, 1777, winning another important victory.

The victories at Trenton and Princeton did not end the American Revolution, but they transformed its momentum. The British still controlled New York and possessed vastly superior military resources, while the Continental Army remained poorly equipped. Yet Washington had shown that the rebellion could survive. The crossing of the Delaware therefore became more than a daring military operation. It was the moment when the American Revolution, which had seemed close to defeat, was given a new lease of life. Washington had kept his army alive – and, in doing so, kept the revolution alive with it.

The British Counter Offensive of 1776

The Declaration of Independence transformed the conflict from a rebellion into an outright war for national independence. King George III and the British government now had little reason to believe that the colonies could be brought back into the Empire through negotiation. The rebellion had to be defeated militarily. Britain therefore assembled a massive expeditionary force to crush the Continental Army and capture the political centre of the revolution.

Frederick North, Lord North, the UK Prime Minister during the revolution

In the summer of 1776, a British fleet carrying around 30,000 troops arrived off New York. Commanded by General William Howe and supported by his brother, Admiral Richard Howe, the British intended to seize New York City and destroy Washington’s army. New York was strategically important because the Hudson River provided a route into the interior of the colonies, while its excellent harbour could serve as a major British naval base.

The British established their main camp on Staten Island, while Washington positioned his army across Long Island and around Brooklyn Heights. The Americans constructed defensive positions and expected the British to attack. Washington, however, was facing a serious problem: his army was still inexperienced, poorly supplied and composed largely of short-term volunteers. The British, by contrast, possessed one of the world’s most experienced professional armies and the most powerful navy in the world.

An illustration of a typical British encampment, similar to the one on Staten Island

Rather than immediately launch a frontal assault, General Howe spent several weeks gathering his forces and looking for weaknesses in the American defences. On August 22nd, British troops began landing on Long Island. Five days later, the Battle of Long Island began. The British used a strategy designed to exploit the American position. While part of Howe’s army attacked the Continental forces from the front, another force secretly moved around their flank through lightly defended routes. The Americans were eventually overwhelmed and forced back towards their fortifications around Brooklyn Heights. Washington’s army suffered heavy casualties and thousands of soldiers were captured.

The situation quickly became desperate. The Continental Army was trapped between the British army and the East River, with New York City behind them and little room to retreat. Washington reportedly watched the battle from Brooklyn Heights as his army was pushed towards the river. If the British attacked the American fortifications directly and succeeded, the entire Continental Army could potentially be destroyed. Yet Howe hesitated. Rather than immediately assault the heavily defended American positions, the British began preparing to besiege them. This decision gave Washington an opportunity that might otherwise never have existed.

A painting of the Continental Army on Long Island

During the night of August 29th and into the early hours of August 30th, American troops quietly withdrew from Long Island across the East River. A combination of darkness, favourable weather and a thick fog concealed the evacuation from the British. Soldiers, artillery and supplies were gradually transported across the river to Manhattan. By morning, almost the entire American army had escaped. The retreat was one of the most important moments of the entire campaign. The British had won a decisive victory, but they had failed to destroy Washington’s army. Had the Continental Army been captured at Brooklyn, the rebellion might have collapsed before the newly declared United States had even established itself.

Instead, the British continued their advance. Washington was forced to abandon New York City and retreat north before eventually withdrawing through New Jersey. The Continental Army suffered further defeats at Kips Bay, White Plains and Fort Washington. By December, Washington had been pushed across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. Morale within the American army collapsed. Soldiers deserted, supplies became scarce and Washington’s leadership was increasingly questioned. The British appeared to be winning almost everywhere they went. To many Americans, the war seemed all but lost. Yet the British victory contained a crucial weakness. They had repeatedly defeated Washington’s army, but they had failed to destroy it. Washington understood that his primary objective was no longer to win every battle, but to keep the Continental Army alive. As long as an American army remained in the field, Britain could not claim that the rebellion had been completely defeated.

Washington on the other side of the Delaware River from the British Army

By the end of 1776, Washington had been driven hundreds of miles from New York, suffered several humiliating defeats and lost much of his army. But he had survived. The British had captured territory, but they had not captured the revolution. And Washington was about to attempt one of the most audacious counterattacks of the entire war.

The Siege of Boston

While the British Army remained trapped in Boston, the newly formed Continental Army desperately needed weapons and ammunition. Most of the colonial militia had arrived with whatever firearms they already owned, leaving Washington with an army that was large enough to surround Boston but poorly equipped for a prolonged war. An opportunity to solve this problem appeared hundreds of miles to the north at Fort Ticonderoga, a British fortification overlooking the strategically important route between Lake Champlain and Lake George.

One of the men who recognised the opportunity was Benedict Arnold, a talented but increasingly controversial Connecticut militia officer. Arnold proposed capturing the fort and seizing its large stores of artillery and ammunition before the British could reinforce it. He began marching towards Ticonderoga, hoping to gather militia along the way. However, he soon discovered that another group had already formed the same plan. Ethan Allen, leader of the Green Mountain Boys of Vermont, was marching towards the fort with his own force.

The two men immediately argued over who should command the expedition. Allen eventually took overall command, while Arnold remained involved in the operation. In the early hours of May 10th, 1775, the Americans crossed Lake Champlain and entered Fort Ticonderoga while most of its small British garrison was still asleep. The defenders were caught almost completely by surprise and surrendered after only token resistance. The Americans had captured the fort and, more importantly, its stockpile of British weapons and ammunition.

An illustration of Allen demanding the Fort’s surrender

The victory was strategically important, but it also created an early rivalry between Arnold and Allen. Allen became celebrated as the hero of the capture, while Arnold felt that his own contribution had been deliberately ignored. Their dispute would become an early indication of the difficult relationships and political rivalries that would later plague the Continental Army.

The Americans soon attempted to use their position at Ticonderoga to expand the war into Canada. American forces captured Montreal but were eventually defeated at Quebec and forced to retreat southwards. Although the Canadian campaign had failed, the Americans still controlled Ticonderoga and had gained access to a valuable collection of British artillery. Washington now needed to get those guns to Boston.

An illustration of the guns captured at Ticonderoga

The man given the task was Henry Knox, a young bookseller from Boston who had taught himself military engineering. Knox proposed transporting the captured artillery more than 300 miles from Ticonderoga to the American army outside Boston. During the winter of 1775–76, Knox and his men dragged dozens of heavy cannons through the frozen wilderness using sledges pulled by horses and oxen. The journey was extraordinarily difficult, but by January the artillery had reached the outskirts of Boston. Washington now possessed something he had desperately lacked: heavy guns capable of threatening the British position.

The British commander, General William Howe, had also recognised the importance of the high ground surrounding Boston. His army occupied Boston itself while the Americans controlled the surrounding countryside. Washington believed that an assault might be necessary to end the siege, but his officers warned him that attacking the heavily fortified British positions directly could result in enormous casualties. Instead, they proposed using the newly arrived artillery to force the British out. The opportunity came in March 1776. American troops secretly occupied Dorchester Heights, a series of hills overlooking Boston and its harbour. During the night, they constructed fortifications and positioned Knox’s artillery at the top of the heights. When morning came, the British were confronted with an unexpected problem. American cannons now commanded both the city and the harbour, while British ships were vulnerable to fire from above.

An illustration of the American forces on Dorchester Heights

Howe realised that attacking the heights would be extremely costly. Remaining in Boston was equally dangerous, as the Americans could now bombard the city and threaten the British fleet. With no realistic way to hold the position, Howe ordered the evacuation of Boston. Beginning on March 17th, 1776, approximately 11,000 British troops, along with thousands of Loyalist civilians, evacuated the city aboard a fleet of ships. They sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia, leaving Boston entirely in American hands.

For Washington, it was his first major victory as commander of the Continental Army. The British had occupied Boston for years, but in less than a year of open warfare they had been forced to abandon it. More importantly, the victory demonstrated the growing effectiveness of the Continental Army. The weapons captured at Ticonderoga had been transported across hundreds of miles of frozen wilderness and used to force one of the world’s most powerful armies from an important colonial city. Yet the victory also revealed the changing nature of the war. The British had not been defeated; they had simply withdrawn. Their main army would soon return with overwhelming reinforcements, and the next British target would be New York. The Siege of Boston had ended, but the American War of Independence was only beginning.

The Battle of Bunker Hill

By June 1775, it had become clear that the colonial militias surrounding Boston could not defeat the British Army without becoming a more organised fighting force. The Continental Congress therefore created the Continental Army and appointed George Washington, a respected veteran of the French and Indian War, as its commander-in-chief. Washington travelled north from Philadelphia to take command, while the British forces in Boston prepared to break out of the city and seize the high ground overlooking the surrounding area.

An illustration of Washington being appointed Commander of the Continental Army

British General Thomas Gage planned to capture the Charlestown peninsula, particularly Bunker Hill, which would give his army an important strategic position overlooking Boston. However, colonial spies discovered the plan. On the night of June 16th, around 1,200 American troops under Colonel William Prescott secretly occupied the peninsula and constructed fortifications on Breed’s Hill, which was actually closer to Boston than Bunker Hill itself.

When the British launched their assault on June 17th, they were faced with a heavily fortified American position. British commanders initially believed that the inexperienced colonial troops would collapse when confronted by disciplined regulars. Their first two assaults were repulsed with devastating casualties. American defenders were famously instructed not to fire until they could “see the whites of their eyes”, conserving their limited ammunition until the British were within close range.

A painting of the continental army setting up their positions on Breed’s Hill

The British eventually launched a third assault after bringing up additional troops and artillery. By this point, however, the Americans had almost completely exhausted their ammunition. The British stormed the fortifications and forced the defenders to retreat across the Charlestown peninsula. The battle was therefore a British victory, but it came at an extraordinary cost. Around 1,000 British soldiers were killed or wounded, compared with roughly 450 American casualties. The British had captured the position, but the battle demonstrated that colonial forces could stand against some of the most experienced soldiers in the world and inflict enormous losses upon them.

The Battle of Bunker Hill also exposed a growing problem for both sides: neither knew exactly what the conflict was going to become. Many colonists still did not want independence from Britain. Their grievances had originally centred on taxation, representation and the increasing authority of Parliament, and some hoped that the dispute could still be settled while maintaining the colonies’ place within the British Empire.

A painting of Parliament from the period

The Continental Congress therefore sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III in July 1775. It declared the colonists’ loyalty to the Crown while asking the King to help resolve their grievances and restore peace. George III refused to recognise the petition, instead declaring that the colonies were in rebellion. To many Americans, this appeared to confirm that reconciliation with Britain was no longer possible.

The conflict subsequently became increasingly destructive. British forces and loyalist troops attacked colonial settlements, while American forces targeted British and loyalist property. In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth in Massachusetts, and in January 1776 they destroyed much of Norfolk, Virginia. American propagandists used the destruction of these towns to portray Britain as deliberately waging war against its own subjects.

A painting of the Royal Navy with Falmouth (now Portland) burning in the background

The rebellion was also beginning to attract international attention. Britain’s traditional enemies, particularly France and Spain, saw an opportunity to weaken the British Empire. Although neither initially entered the war openly, both provided the American rebels with weapons, ammunition, money and other supplies. France in particular would eventually become one of the most important American allies.

The failure of the Olive Branch Petition marked an important turning point. The conflict was no longer simply a dispute over taxation and political representation. Britain regarded the colonists as rebels, while an increasing number of Americans were beginning to question whether reconciliation was possible at all. Within months, the demand for reform would become a demand for independence.